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Cloning has been a controversial issue since 1997 when it was publicly announced that the first mammal, a sheep named Dolly, was cloned by scientists using adult cells. The term "cloning" refers to the process of making an exact genetic copy of a living thing. Humans have been cloning organisms for decades. However, the technology used to create Dolly made the possibility of cloning human beings feasible for the first time in history. Many people advocate the use of cloning, with possible beneficial applications ranging from disease prevention to the production of more nourishing food. Despite these valuable applications, critics fear the unforeseen consequences of generating life in an entirely new manner.
Isolated cells, genes and entire organisms can be cloned. The most contentious type of cloning is nuclear transfer cloning, which is the process that was used to create Dolly the sheep. In nuclear transfer cloning, a nucleus containing complete genes is placed inside an egg with its genetic material removed. Then, the nucleus develops inside the egg to become a clone of its donor organism. Nuclear transfer cloning can be used to clone entire organisms (reproductive cloning) or to reproduce parts of an organism for research or medicinal purposes (therapeutic cloning).
Understanding the Discussion
Cell: The smallest unit in a living organism that includes all elements necessary for life.
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA): A chemical configuration containing genetic information for the particular makeup of an organism.
Eugenics: Selective breeding to encourage the reproduction of people with particular genetic characteristics. Eugenics is widely considered to be a justification for racial discrimination.
Gene: A structure composed of DNA, and sometimes RNA, which maintains hereditary information and regulates the synthesis of protein.
Genetic Engineering: The synthetic alteration of DNA.
Genome: A set of DNA belonging to a specific organism.
Inheritable Genetic Modification (IGM): The alteration of genetic material in isolated embryos. Any organism resulting from such an embryo would have or lack the genetic attributes that were added or subtracted from the embryo's natural genetic makeup. IGM has not been applied to humans; scientists worry that the use of IGM in humans could permanently alter the genetic makeup of the human race.
Nucleus: The component of a cell that contains genes and is responsible for the behaviour of the cell.
Patent: An inventor's legal right of exclusive ownership and use of his or her invention for a select period of time.
History
In 1902, German scientist Hans Spemann split a salamander embryo in two. Each half grew into a separate adult salamander. Spemann proved that cells keep their genetic information even when they are divided. Then, in 1928, Spemann took a nucleus from one salamander embryo and placed it in the egg of another salamander. The nucleus developed into a cloned salamander, and the nuclear transfer cloning process was created. Following Spemann's discoveries, two American scientists, Robert Biggs and Thomas King, transferred cells from frog embryos to create tadpole clones in 1952.
During the 1970s, the first gene was isolated. Recombinant DNA was then created by fusing the DNA of two different organisms. This technique produced mice containing human genetic material. The mice were used to study human diseases.
By the 1980s, the first mammals had been cloned using embryos. In 1986, the United States Department of Energy made public the Human Genome Project (HGP). The HGP lasted from 1990 until 2003 and mapped out the entire human genome. During the 1990s, the US Patent Office determined that artificially created, nonhuman, multicellular organisms could be patented. In 1989, the Canadian government implemented a voluntary moratorium on human cloning.
In 1996, Scottish scientist Ian Wilmut created Dolly, the first clone created using a cell from an adult organism. The existence of Dolly was announced to the world in 1997. Before the new millennium, other large mammals, such as pigs, were produced using the same method, while claims began to surface that the first human clone was in progress. However, claims about the existence or development of human clones remain unverified.
Thirty human embryo clones were produced in South Korea in February 2004. These clones were used to harvest stem cells to development treatments for diseases such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's. The next month, the Canadian government passed the Assisted Human Reproduction Act (AHRA). This legislation outlined a comprehensive stance on cloning technology in relation to the production of humans. Developed with the help of feminist and community groups, the AHRA bans activity such as inheritable genetic modification (IGM) and the manufacture of human embryos exclusively for research purposes.
The AHRA places Canada in league with other countries such as the United Kingdom, Germany and Australia, all of which have comparable policies on the issue. The United Nations declared in November 2007 that an international ban on human cloning is necessary to avoid the otherwise inevitable manufacture of human clones.
Cloning Today
Cloning is a multifaceted issue that elicits a wide range of opinions. Some believe that cloning for certain purposes is beneficial. However, critics argue that any cloning is wrong because the consequences cannot be foreseen or controlled. In general, a majority of Canadians believe that even though cloning technology can be constructive, it is still dangerous.
Supporters of animal cloning argue it can reproduce the healthiest, most nutritious livestock for food all over the world. Cloned animals could also be reproduced with specific traits in order to aid scientific research. Some advocates wish to use cloning to repopulate extinct or near extinct species.
Opponents of animal cloning insist that all life is sacred and should not be tampered with. In this view, the creation of life for the sole purpose of terminating or experimenting with it is considered unethical. Environmentalists and some biologists are concerned that by further altering animal populations, fragile ecosystems might be destroyed, resulting in global environmental consequences. Others argue that because cloning is a new technology, it is impossible to determine all of its long-term consequences. While it has not yet been confirmed, it is possible that consuming meat or dairy derived from cloned animals may result in illness.
In many countries, therapeutic cloning produces human genetic material. Scientists performing this work hope to use this form of cloning to promote health and cure disease. Proponents believe that such work will lead to discoveries that help doctors treat deadly diseases such as cancer. Additionally, therapeutic cloning has the potential to make organ transplant a safer and more effective treatment. Therapeutic cloning could also make it possible to generate spare or replacement organs using the body's own material. This would eliminate issues of donated organ scarcity and the rejection of foreign organs.
For many, the benefits of therapeutic cloning do not outweigh its drawbacks. In order to produce stem cell material for research, a human embryo must be created and then destroyed at an early stage. This is considered highly unethical by those who believe that a fertilized egg is a person. Furthermore, therapeutic cloning increases the possibility of selective genetic engineering. Opponents fear that selective genetic engineering could lead to a new form of eugenics, or discrimination against anyone with an abnormal genetic makeup in favour of those who are deemed to have preferable genetics. This possibility is exacerbated by the extreme expense of cloning technology.
Currently, cloning humans is a dangerous proposition. Most attempts to clone other mammals have failed. If women tried to carry eggs containing cloned embryos to term, they would be subject to psychological and physical risk. Moreover, among those mammals that are successfully cloned, there are high rates of deformity and premature death. There is more risk of significant aberration in the cloning of humans because of their complex brain function. Groups like the World Health Organization (WHO) have spoken out against the cloning of human beings.
Even if it becomes feasible to safely clone humans, there are other potential problems. The ability to design human beings inherently changes the way society regards life. For example, a cloned human lacks genetic individuality, which may be problematic in a Western society that values the individual.
Among the many current concerns about cloning is patenting. In order to fund and dedicate time to research, scientists expect remuneration and credit for their work. Patents have traditionally filled this role. However, in cloning, complex living organisms are often created. When a person seeks to patent a living organism, he or she is in effect seeking ownership of it. This is unacceptable to those who believe that life cannot have a monetary value or belong to any one person or group. Also of concern is the possible loss of diversity. If all or a majority of one type of organism share similar genetics, they will have the same level of susceptibility and lack the necessary resistance to disease. Such a population of organisms could be eliminated by a single type of illness.
Cloning technology is progressing rapidly. As researchers respond to market pressure in order to continue their work, it is possible that important decisions about the future of humanity are being made hastily, by a small group. Until scientific and political groups around the world have had time to deliberate on all of the issues surrounding cloning, organizations such as the Center for Genetics and Society recommend a slower pace for the development of cloning and its applications.
Bibliography
Books
Almond, Brenda and Michael Parker, eds. "Ethical Issues in the New Genetics: Are Genes Us?" Burlington, VT : Ashgate, 2003.
Baird, Patricia. "Prospects and Perils for Humanity of Two New Genetic Technologies." Vancouver, BC, Canada: Centre for Health Services and Policy Research, 2003.
Levick, Stephen E. "Clone Being: Exploring the Psychological and Social Dimensions." Lanham, Maryland: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers Inc., 2004.
Lundin, Susanne and Lynn Akesson, eds. "Gene Technology and Economy." Sweden: Nordic Academic Press, 2002.
Periodicals
Baird, Stephen L. "Technological Literacy and Human Cloning." Technology Teacher 62.3 (November 2002): 19–26.
Park, Alice. "Man Makes Life." Time Canada 171.5 (04 Feb. 2008): 28-32. Canadian Reference Centre. EBSCO. 15 July 2009
Pooley, Erin. "THE STEM CELL REVOLUTION. (cover story)." Canadian Business 79.6 (20 Nov. 2006): 30. Canadian Points of View Reference Centre. EBSCO. 15 July 2009
Websites
"Assisted Human Reproduction, Human Cloning and Stem Cell Research." Health Canada, Science and Research. http://hc-sc.gc.ca/sr-sr/pubs/biotech/proc_assi_hum_e.html.
"Human Genome Project Information." US Department of Energy, Office of Science, Human Genome Program. http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/ Human_Genome/home.shtml>.
"The Politics of Human Biotechnology". Center for Genetics and Society. http://geneticsandsociety.org/article.php?list=type&type=59.
• These essays and any opinions, information or representations contained therein are the creation of the particular author and do not necessarily reflect the opinion of EBSCO Publishing.
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By Melanie Lambrick
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