LITERARY
DEVICES
Copyright � 2007 by Jay Braiman
Literary
devices refers to specific aspects of
literature, in the sense of its universal function as an art form which
expresses ideas through language, which we can recognize, identify, interpret
and/or analyze. Literary devices collectively comprise the art form�s components;
the means by which authors create meaning through language, and by which
readers gain understanding of and appreciation for their works. They also
provide a conceptual framework for comparing individual literary works to others,
both within and across genres. Both literary elements and literary
techniques can rightly be called literary devices.
Literary
elements refers to particular
identifiable characteristics of a whole text. They are not �used,� per
se, by authors; they represent the elements of storytelling which are common to
all literary and narrative forms. For example, every story has a theme,
every story has a setting, every story has a conflict, every
story is written from a particular point-of-view, etc. In order to be
discussed legitimately as part of a textual analysis, literary elements must be
specifically identified for that particular text.
Literary
techniques refers to any specific,
deliberate constructions or choices of language which an author uses to convey
meaning in a particular way. An author�s use of a literary technique usually
occurs with a single word or phrase, or a particular group of words or phrases,
at one single point in a text. Unlike literary elements, literary techniques
are not necessarily present in every text; they represent
deliberate, conscious choices by individual authors.
�Literary
terms� refers to the words themselves with which we identify and
designate literary elements and techniques. They are not found in
literature and they are not �used� by authors.
�
Allegory: Where every
aspect of a story is representative, usually symbolic, of something else,
usually a larger abstract concept or important historical/geopolitical event.
Lord
of the Flies provides a compelling allegory
of human nature, illustrating the three sides of the psyche through its
sharply-defined main characters.
Alliteration: The
repetition of consonant sounds within close proximity, usually in consecutive
words within the same sentence or line.
Antagonist: Counterpart
to the main character and source of a story�s main conflict. The person may not
be �bad� or �evil� by any conventional moral standard, but he/she opposes the
protagonist in a significant way. (Although it is technically a literary
element, the term is only useful for identification, as part of a discussion or
analysis of character; it cannot generally be analyzed by itself.)
Anthropomorphism: Where
animals or inanimate objects are portrayed in a story as people, such as by
walking, talking, or being given arms, legs, facial features, human locomotion
or other anthropoid form. (This technique is often incorrectly called personification.)
The King
and Queen of Hearts and their playing-card courtiers comprise only one example
of Carroll�s extensive use of anthropomorphism in Alice�s Adventures
in Wonderland.
Blank verse: Non-rhyming
poetry, usually written in iambic pentameter.
Most of
Shakespeare�s dialogue is written in blank verse, though it does
occasionally rhyme.
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Character: The people
who inhabit and take part in a story. When discussing character, as distinct
from characterization, look to the essential function of the
character, or of all the characters as a group, in the story as a whole.
Rather
than focus on one particular character, Lord assembles a series of brief
vignettes and anecdotes involving multiple characters, in order to give
the reader the broadest possible spectrum of human behavior.
Golding
uses his main characters to represent the different parts of the human
psyche, to illustrate mankind�s internal struggle between desire, intellect,
and conscience.
Characterization: The
author�s means of conveying to the reader a character�s personality, life
history, values, physical attributes, etc. Also refers directly to a
description thereof.
Atticus is
characterized as an almost impossibly virtuous man, always doing what is
right and imparting impeccable moral values to his children.
Climax: The turning
point in a story, at which the end result becomes inevitable, usually where
something suddenly goes terribly wrong; the �dramatic high point� of a story.
(Although it is technically a literary element, the term is only useful for
identification, as part of a discussion or analysis of structure; it
cannot generally be analyzed by itself.)
The story
reaches its climax in Act III, when Mercutio and Tybalt
are killed and Romeo is banished from Verona.
Conflict: A struggle
between opposing forces which is the driving force of a story. The outcome of
any story provides a resolution of the conflict(s); this is what keeps the
reader reading. Conflicts can exist between individual characters, between
groups of characters, between a character and society, etc., and can also be
purely abstract (i.e., conflicting ideas).
The conflict
between the Montagues and Capulets causes Romeo and Juliet to behave
irrationally once they fall in love.
Jack�s
priorities are in conflict with those of Ralph and Piggy, which causes
him to break away from the group.
Man-versus-nature
is an important conflict in The Old Man and the Sea.
Context: Conditions,
including facts, social/historical background, time and place, etc.,
surrounding a given situation.
Madame Defarge�s actions seem almost
reasonable in the context of the Revolution.
Creative license: Exaggeration
or alteration of objective facts or reality, for the purpose of enhancing
meaning in a fictional context.
Orwell
took some creative license with the historical events of the Russian
Revolution, in order to clarify the ideological conflicts.
Dialogue: Where
characters speak to one another; may often be used to substitute for
exposition.
Since
there is so little stage direction in Shakespeare, many of the characters�
thoughts and actions are revealed through dialogue.
Dramatic irony: Where
the audience or reader is aware of something important, of which the characters
in the story are not aware.
Macbeth
responds with disbelief when the weird sisters call him Thane of Cawdor; ironically,
unbeknownst to him, he had been granted that title by king Duncan in the
previous scene.
Exposition: Where an
author interrupts a story in order to explain something, usually to provide
important background information.
The first
chapter consists mostly of exposition, running down the family�s history
and describing their living conditions.
Figurative language: Any
use of language where the intended meaning differs from the actual literal
meaning of the words themselves. There are many techniques which can rightly be
called figurative language, including metaphor, simile, hyperbole,
personification, onomatopoeia, verbal irony, and oxymoron. (Related: figure
of speech)
The poet
makes extensive use of figurative language, presenting the speaker�s
feelings as colors, sounds and flavors.
Foil: A character who
is meant to represent characteristics, values, ideas, etc. which are directly
and diametrically opposed to those of another character, usually the
protagonist. (Although it is technically a literary element, the term is only
useful for identification, as part of a discussion or analysis of character;
it cannot generally be analyzed by itself.)
The
noble, virtuous father Macduff
provides an ideal foil for the villainous, childless Macbeth.
Foreshadowing: Where
future events in a story, or perhaps the outcome, are suggested by the
author before they happen. Foreshadowing can take many forms and be
accomplished in many ways, with varying degrees of subtlety. However, if the
outcome is deliberately and explicitly revealed early in a story (such as by
the use of a narrator or flashback structure), such information does not constitute
foreshadowing.
Willy�s
concern for his car foreshadows his eventual means of suicide.
Hyperbole: A description
which exaggerates, usually employing extremes and/or superlatives to convey a
positive or negative attribute; �hype.�
The author
uses hyperbole to describe Mr. Smith, calling him �the greatest human
being ever to walk the earth.�
Iambic pentameter: A
poetic meter wherein each line contains ten syllables, as five repetitions of a
two-syllable pattern in which the pronunciation emphasis is on the second
syllable.
Shakespeare
wrote most of his dialogue in iambic pentameter, often having to adjust
the order and nature of words to fit the syllable pattern, thus endowing the
language with even greater meaning.
Imagery: Language which
describes something in detail, using words to substitute for and create sensory
stimulation, including visual imagery and sound imagery. Also refers to
specific and recurring types of images, such as food imagery and nature
imagery. (Not all descriptions can rightly be called imagery; the key is the
appeal to and stimulation of specific senses, usually visual. It is often
advisable to specify the type of imagery being used, and consider the
significance of the images themselves, to distinguish imagery from mere
description.)
The
author�s use of visual imagery is impressive; the reader is able to see
the island in all its lush, colorful splendor by reading Golding�s detailed
descriptions.
Irony (a.k.a. Situational
irony): Where an event occurs which is unexpected, in the sense that
it is somehow in absurd or mocking opposition to what would be expected or
appropriate. Mere coincidence is generally not ironic; neither is mere
surprise, nor are any random or arbitrary occurrences. (Note: Most of the
situations in the Alanis Morissette song are not
ironic at all, which may actually make the song ironic in itself.) See also Dramatic
irony; Verbal irony.
Jem and
Scout are saved by Boo Radley, who had ironically been an object of fear
and suspicion to them at the beginning of the novel.
Metaphor: A direct
relationship where one thing or idea substitutes for another.
Shakespeare
often uses light as a metaphor for Juliet; Romeo refers to her as the
sun, as �a rich jewel in an Ethiop�s ear,� and as a solitary dove among crows.
Mood: The atmosphere
or emotional condition created by the piece, within the setting. Mood refers to
the general sense or feeling which the reader is supposed to get from the text;
it does not, as a literary element, refer to the author�s or characters�
state of mind. (Note that mood is a literary element, not a technique;
the mood must therefore be described or identified. It would be incorrect to
simply state, �The author uses mood.�)
The mood
of Macbeth is dark, murky and mysterious, creating a sense of fear and
uncertainty.
Motif: A recurring
important idea or image. A motif differs from a theme in that it can be
expressed as a single word or fragmentary phrase, while a theme usually must be
expressed as a complete sentence.
Blood is
an important motif in A Tale of Two Cities, appearing numerous
times throughout the novel.
Onomatopoeia: Where
sounds are spelled out as words; or, when words describing sounds actually
sound like the sounds they describe.
Remarque uses onomatopoeia
to suggest the dying soldier�s agony, his last gasp described as a
�gurgling rattle.�
Oxymoron: A
contradiction in terms.
Romeo
describes love using several oxymorons,
such as �cold fire,� �feather of lead� and �sick health,� to suggest its
contradictory nature.
Paradox: Where a
situation is created which cannot possibly exist, because different elements of
it cancel each other out.
In 1984,
�doublethink� refers to the paradox where history is changed, and then
claimed to have never been changed.
A Tale
of Two Cities opens with the famous paradox,
�It was the best of times, it was the worst of times.�
Parallelism: Use of
similar or identical language, structures, events or ideas in different parts
of a text.
Hobbs�
final strikeout parallels the Whammer�s
striking out against him at the beginning of the novel.
Personification (I) Where
inanimate objects or abstract concepts are seemingly endowed with human
self-awareness; where human thoughts, actions, perceptions and emotions are directly
attributed to inanimate objects or abstract ideas. (Not to be confused with anthropomorphism.)
Malamud personifies
Hobbs� bat, giving it a name, Wonderboy,
and referring to it using personal pronouns; for example, �he went
hungry� during Hobbs� batting slump.
Personification (II) Where an abstract concept, such as a particular human
behavior or a force of nature, is represented as a person.
The Greeks
personified natural forces as gods; for example, the god Poseidon was
the personification of the sea and its power over man.
Plot: Sequence of
events in a story. Most literary essay tasks will instruct the writer to �avoid
plot summary;� the term is therefore rarely useful for response or critical
analysis. When discussing plot, it is generally more useful to consider and
analyze its structure, rather than simply recapitulate �what happens.�
Point-of-view: The
identity of the narrative voice; the person or entity through whom the reader
experiences the story. May be third-person (no narrator; abstract narrative
voice, omniscient or limited) or first-person (narrated by a character in the
story or a direct observer). Point-of-view is a commonly misused term; it does not
refer to the author�s or characters� feelings, opinions, perspectives, biases,
etc.
Though it
is written in third-person, Animal Farm is told from the limited
point-of-view of the common animals, unaware of what is really happening
as the pigs gradually and secretively take over the farm.
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Writing
the story in first-person point-of-view enables the reader to experience
the soldier�s fear and uncertainty, limiting the narrative to what only he saw,
thought and felt during the battle.
Protagonist: The main
character in a story, the one with whom the reader is meant to identify. The
person is not necessarily �good� by any conventional moral standard, but he/she
is the person in whose plight the reader is most invested. (Although it is
technically a literary element, the term is only useful for identification, as
part of a discussion or analysis of character; it cannot generally be
analyzed by itself.)
Repetition: Where a
specific word, phrase, or structure is repeated several times, usually in close
proximity, to emphasize a particular idea.
The repetition
of the words �What if�� at the beginning of each line reinforces the speaker�s
confusion and fear.
Setting: The time and
place where a story occurs. The setting can be specific (e.g., New York City in
1930) or ambiguous (e.g., a large urban city during economic hard times). Also
refers directly to a description thereof. When discussing or analyzing setting,
it is generally insufficient to merely identify the time and place; an analysis
of setting should include a discussion of its overall impact on the story and
characters.
The novel
is set in the South during the racially turbulent 1930�s, when blacks
were treated unfairly by the courts.
With the
island, Golding creates a pristine, isolated and uncorrupted setting, in
order to show that the boys� actions result from their own essential nature
rather than their environment.
Simile: An indirect relationship where one thing or idea is
described as being similar to another. Similes usually contain the words �like�
or �as,� but not always.
The simile
in line 10 describes the lunar eclipse: �The moon appeared crimson, like a
drop of blood hanging in the sky.�
The
character�s gait is described in the simile: �She hunched and struggled her way
down the path, the way an old beggar woman might wander about.�
Speaker: The �voice�
of a poem; not to be confused with the poet him/herself. Analogous to
the narrator in prose fiction.
Structure: The manner
in which the various elements of a story are assembled.
The
individual tales are told within the structure of the larger framing
story, where the 29 travelers gather at the Inn at Southwark on their journey to Canterbury, telling
stories to pass the time.
The play
follows the traditional Shakespearean five-act plot structure, with
exposition in Act I, development in Act II, the climax or turning point in Act
III, falling action in Act IV, and resolution in Act V.
Symbolism: The use of
specific objects or images to represent abstract ideas. This term is commonly
misused, describing any and all representational relationships, which in fact
are more often metaphorical than symbolic. A symbol must be something
tangible or visible, while the idea it symbolizes must be something
abstract or universal. (In other words, a symbol must be something you
can hold in your hand or draw a picture of, while the idea it symbolizes must
be something you can�t hold in your hand or draw a picture of.)
Golding
uses symbols to represent the various aspects of human nature and
civilization as they are revealed in the novel. The conch symbolizes
order and authority, while its gradual deterioration and ultimate destruction metaphorically
represent the boys� collective downfall.
Theme: The main idea
or message conveyed by the piece. A theme should generally be expressed as a
complete sentence; an idea expressed by a single word or fragmentary phrase is
usually a motif.
Orwell�s theme
is that absolute power corrupts absolutely.
The idea
that human beings are essentially brutal, savage creatures provides the central
theme of the novel.
Tone: The apparent
emotional state, or �attitude,� of the speaker/narrator/narrative voice, as
conveyed through the language of the piece. Tone refers only to the
narrative voice; not to the author or characters. It must be described or
identified in order to be analyzed properly; it would be incorrect to simply
state, �The author uses tone.�
The poem
has a bitter and sardonic tone, revealing the speaker�s anger and
resentment.
The tone
of Gulliver�s narration is unusually matter-of-fact, as he seems to regard
these bizarre and absurd occurrences as ordinary or commonplace.
Tragedy: Where a story
ends with a negative or unfortunate outcome which was essentially avoidable,
usually caused by a flaw in the central character�s personality. Tragedy
is really more of a dramatic genre than a literary element; a play can be
referred to as a tragedy, but tragic events in a story are essentially part of
the plot, rather than a literary device in themselves. When discussing tragedy,
or analyzing a story as tragic, look to the other elements of the story which
combine to make it tragic.
Tragic hero/tragic figure: A protagonist who comes to a bad end as a result of his own
behavior, usually cased by a specific personality disorder or character flaw.
(Although it is technically a literary element, the term is only useful for
identification, as part of a discussion or analysis of character; it
cannot generally be analyzed by itself.)
Willy Loman
is one of the best-known tragic figures in American literature,
oblivious to and unable to face the reality of his life.
Tragic flaw: The
single characteristic (usually negative) or personality disorder which causes
the downfall of the protagonist.
Othello�s
tragic flaw is his jealousy, which consumes him so thoroughly that he is
driven to murder his wife rather than accept, let alone confirm, her
infidelity. (Although it is technically a
literary element, the term is only useful for identification, as part of a
discussion or analysis of character; it cannot generally be analyzed by
itself.)
Verbal irony: Where the
meaning of a specific expression is, or is intended to be, the exact opposite
of what the words literally mean. (Sarcasm is a tone of voice that often
accompanies verbal irony, but they are not the same thing.)
Orwell
gives this torture and brainwashing facility the ironic title, �Ministry
of Love.�
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